Mahakavi Subramania Bharathi

  By M Santhnam

                              (M Santhnam is a former Judge  of High Court. He is a Writer and Thinker)
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                Chinnawami Subramania Bharathi (1882 to 1921)was a Tamil poet, Journalist,Indian Independence activist and  Social reformer. He was born  in Ettayapuram in Tamilnadu He served as journalist  in many Tamil news papers. He was a contemporary of Mahatma Gandhi, Tilak, Aurobindo and many others of yester years. An arrest warrant was issued by the British for his revolutionary activities. He went away to Pondicheri and  was working with Aurobindo.  He deposed in a case against VO Chidambaram Pillai who was the first man to introduce a steam Ship in India

                 Even at the age of 11  the poet was given the title of Bharathi , meaning"Blessed by Goddess Saraswati."in his High School   He lost his mother when he was five and his father soon thereafter.  He left for Benares  to be with his uncle. When he was 14 he  married his cousin who was 7 years old. At Benares he learnt Sanskrit, Hindi, Telugu  Malayalam and other languages. He met Sister Nevedita,the spiritual daughter of Swami Vivekananda.   He attended the Indian National congress meeting at Benares He came into contact with the leaders which brought him close to the freedom movement. He roused the freedom spirit of the farmers, laborer and others in Tamilnadu and elsewhere. He wrote poems condemning caste system   He was against suppression of women. Goddess Kai was his favorite deity. He has composed several songs on Kalimata. It is said that  Bharathi had organized a Swaraj Meeting in the Marina Beach in Chennai. Gandhiji was in Madras at that time.  Without any earlier notice Bharathi wanted Gandhiji to address the gathering.  He barged into the room of Gandhi and asked him "Gandhiji I have organized a meeting to day. I wish you  address us. Is it possible?" Gandhiji had earlier engagements and could not come.  Bharathi left the place saying the he may have another opportunity to address the people of Tamilnadu  After he left the place Rajaji who was there told Gandhiji that Bharathi was a Tamil poet actively engaged in freedom movement. Gandhiji replied"He is a precious jewel. Such great patriots should be preserved.

                An school girl once asked her teacher "How did Gandhiji get the title of Father of the Nation"  The teacher could not give an answer. The girl wrote to  the Right to Information Act authorities. They contacted the Prime Ministers Office and national archives but could not get a satisfactory reply. But it is said , that in his poem" Vazhaga Nee Emman" Poet Bharathi had referred to Gandhiji as uplifting the downtrodden masses of India which implied that he was the "Father  of the Nation" 

              When Tagore was honored with Nobel Prize, many thought that poet Bharathi also deserved such recognition.  Poet Bharathi had a miserable end. He was stuck by a temple Elephant  He was living in absolute poverty. He was addicted to opium to quench his hunger. Of course after his death,Bharathi University was started. His house was acluired by the Govt and was converted as a Memorial. His statutes  were placed in Chennai and in the Parliament House.There were many patriots  who have lost their  lives  after extreme scarifies. Bharathi was one among the unsung heroes of  freedom who were not destined to enjoy the freedom they sought so  vehemently.

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Dharma Dhyan Samadhi ( Concentration, Meditation, Trance )

BY AVDHESH KUMAR MATHUR
                                                   I Implore you to practice with our inherent power discrimination
and renunciation  with help of a guru, a religious teacher, the art of Concentration,Meditation and                           Trance to achieve highest goal of our life i.e. Bliss God Now, with entering sanyas ashram we completed our worldly duties we must resort to devotion of God and Service to Humanity by Devotion and Practice of CONCENTRATION-MEDITATION-AND-TRANCE. As we are left  with only few years to attain our goal of life i.e. greatest lasting pleasure .

                                                                 To start with  we proceed direct to concentration very senior  now ignoring the other stages i.e. 1. Yam 2. Niyam 3. Asan 4. Prayanam 5. Pratyahar; but not defying them and which will automatically come within you with our faith, strong willpower and determination to achieve goal of life.                                                             

                                                                The  first step is to sit erect,  according to instruction of Bhagwat Gita,  chapter 6.10 to  6.15. and then pointedly pay attention to some object or Ist Dev or mantra and then concentrate with full attention of your mind  with love and affection towards this object and see. If any distractions come in way you may remove it  by taking  your thought to a superior object  by any methods given in Gita,  chapter 12.8,9,10,11  or by visualizing an object superior to the original object as per Gita chapter 7.8 to 7.10, and chapter 10.19 to 10.40, that will will bring back your concentration to original object  every time you are distracted.  Til you may practice by keeping  your pointed attention to more than period of 20 seconds which will mean that you have reached stage of Meditation, and still further when you can remain in Meditation for a  period of  20 minutes or more you shall  be in  the field of Trance. Then you shall feel Ecstasy and all pleasures of life in Divinity. But this  is a temporary and passing phase.  

                                                                 Now there are two types of samadhis 1. Savichar sa-sankalpa samadhi e.g. when it is done with efforts due to  inner mental disturbances it is called sa-sankalpa samadhi. 2. When disturbances are absent this is Nirvichar nirvikalp samadhi, when by practice  are able to become stable and you remain in samadhi till you are disturbed from outside.                                                                                                                            For doing all this you must have faith and sincerely believe that   you are not body  nor mind, nor intellect, nor consciousness or ego but some thing alive which is yourself called  antaratma in Hindi, which is a spark of  highest Self, which is called Atma and whole is called Parmatma i.e. all mighty God. which is beyond nature called Maya or Prakriti,  an active form of God energy which works out this world and worldly matters under his directions and control.                  

                                                                     In Vedanta, a Hindu scripture which  is a  sum and substance of  Vedas and Upanishads, talk of Chetna or self   ( life substance of all living beings ) in your cavity of lower heart and Atma or Parmatma ( pure soul or God ) sitting in upper heart  as two birds watching each other.

                                                                   The first represents bhokta (sufferer of all bad and good deeds of this and past lives ) and Atma as Drista (Seer), We as humans  when devoid of Maya, the evil Powers of God, are pure Self e.g. Antaratma which is only a spark ( ansh ) of God which is always keen to merge with God to achieve the greatest state Sat Chit Anand ( truth-consciousness-bliss).   

                                                                     Now  we are not this body or mind intellect consciousness or ego but pure self an ansh of God, the pure living entity of God. we must realize this and have faith in it. Now this self of ours gets this human body after about 84 million  years after being born in other yonies of inferior insects and plants, trees and animal life, after we get lots of trouble dying and being born again and again and having pains and pleasure,  and other agonies of life. This all hurts us and we are always in distress and  peace and tranquility are absent from our life. So the chetna which is bhokta sees and admires atma which is drista and wants  to become similar to it and take advantage of human birth to attain lasting  peace and tranquility to get ultimate enlightenment.

                                                                        For this has to shed its ego of doer and he is not doing and then see for himself that actually he is in fact not doing any work  which is being done by three gunas of Maya. and then he has to leave desires of fruit of these works and surrender them to God. Then he will rise above Maya and his all karmas done in this life ( kriman karmas, and then prarabdha karma and then sanchit karmas, dissolve in God and he becomes pure antaratma anansh or sparkle of God. At this time he eagerly wants to merge with its anshi God by shedding all curtains of physical, shokhsham and kararan bodies ( i.e. Ananya Maya kosh, pranmaya kosha, manomaa kosh vigan maa kosh and lastly anand maya kosh. After merging the state is Seer - become and you transform yourself to higher SELF i.e.God.

                                                                      This is the ultimate which you get by practice of samadhi i.e. truth-conscience and bliss in the purest form. The goal of is thus achieved.
2)OM
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(By Advesh kumar Mathur)

                                                           With God’s grace I am attempting to trace the origin of OM and deliberate on it. It is said that O Mexisted from the beginning. In modern theory it may be sound and vibrations when universe came into
existence when Big Bang occurred. It is a resonating sound associated with its uniqueness which in
Hindu religion is known as Santana Dharma, is a symbol of worshiping Universal God which belongs to
everybody irrespective of faith.

                                                           OM is imperishable word. Om is the Universe. Everything is Om. All present, past and future is Om.All that can exist beyond bounds of time is OM, whether inert or living. That is our concept of All mighty
GOD. Which in Short is Symbol OM. Also known as Omkar.It is therefore very surprising that we do not find its mention in Rig Veda described as first Veda out of the four Veda’s which were assorted by Rishi Ved Vyas from Shruties. These Shruties were seen in vision and heard by ancient Rishis and each shruti is named after the Rishi who visualized it while

meditating and transferred it to his disciples orally and so on. For example Gayatri Mantra was first
visualized by Rishi Valmiki. And OM though it was from eternity was only brought to knowledge by Lord
Vishnu. It is First mentioned In Yajurveda and is also mentioned in many Upanishads such as Chandogya
Upanishad, Katho Upanishad and Taitarya Upanishad and is prevalent in Sam Ved and Ather Veda. Ather
Veda specifically mentions that there is only ONE God and not two or three or four or five and so on. So
this One God is nothing else but OM.

                                                          Now we observe that popular Mantras were initially mentioned as Namo Shivai, Ganeshai Nama,Bhubhurva swai tat savitur varenium bhargodevasa dhi mahi dhiyona prochodiyat etc. as mentioned
in Rig Veda,are now modified as Om namo Shivai, Om Ganeshai Nama, Om bhubhurva swai tat savitur
varenium bhargodevasia dhi mahi dhio yo na prochadiyat by adding Om as prefix showing that we are
actually worshiping only ONE God.

                                                        Now we encounter various names in Vedas and Upanishads who function some of the qualities of 'ONE GOD', and worship them as gods and goddesses and also creator, provider-Savior and destroyer
separately and treat them as our God and we and others think that in Hinduism there are many God and gods and goddesses and we do not believe in one God. This is totally baseless and shows our ignorance.
The One God OM is only seer or drista and he does not perform any work of creator, provider-savior or
destroyer. These are his energies known as Trinity ( Ishwar) who through his Maya- para and Apara
shakties inherent in him gets all this done through his Maya work but due to ignorance we consider
them as different entities which appear as different than God. But when we discriminate and see the
reality we realize that there is nothing else in this world except One Almighty God, the God of universe
i.e. OM. Even all living beings including human beings and all inert things are but a manifestation of him
which we realize when we are aware of ourselves and when we are enlightened and liberated. We are
only a sparkle or his ansh and are one with him as is a drop of water to ocean. His inherent Shakties
or energies are in whole are known as Maya i.e. Illusion and it is of two kinds Para and Upra Prakrti or
nature. Through All mighty GOD’s power that nature works and it is because of illusion that we do not

realize him as we cannot feel or see him with our five senses of knowledge.

                                                      As somebody said letters of God i.e. G stands for Generator ;- Creator, O stands for Operator;-Provider-savair and D stands for Destroyer;- i.e. same as Brahma, Vishnu and Mahesh who as trinity or
Ishwar is responsible for running of this World and Universe. The Almighty God is seer or drishta of all
this. After we realize ourselves the illusion gets dissolved and we see OM the Almighty God stands as
existence consciousness and Bliss.

                                                       So Om is the imperishable word. Om is the universe and this is the exposition of OM. The past, present and the future, all that was, all that is all that will be, is OM. Likewise all else that may exist beyond the
bounds of time is OM - Says Mandook Upnishad.First visionary of OM was Vishnu himself. Now the word OM has spread all over the world as a result of spread of yoga as the cosmic word is chanted with cosmic vibrations before the beginning of yogic exercises all over the world. We pray to OM to give us mindfulness awakening and devotion and with

love and faith so that we realize our selves to be same as He. Let us take deep breath and say OM three times aloud with all vibrations

Om shanty, shanty, shanty, 
3)ESSENCE OF BHAGWAT GITA
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With so many commentaries on Bhagwat Gita  ,each expert giving a new meaning to  the verses in Gita it is very difficult to understand true meaning and its application to our life, i have tried to give overview in short to comprehend the truth in short express it to you.

My experience is that any person  who has read Gita many a times, will agree that he finds  something new every time he reads it. and he can only as emulate it if he draws his own conclusions after reading a few comments from experts on the subject..

In my considered view Gita  narrates the contradictions and constant struggle between two parts of our mind i.e 1.Pure mind and evil mind which is always there in our mind on each subject we deal or think about, Which is just like Great war called Mahabharata. How to practice and solve this problem is dealt with in Bhagwat Gita in shape of  a dialogue between Sri Krishna an incarnation of GOD and  Arjun,and who represents one of us.

In short it is said by Lord Krishna that one should think about the subject with detachment  and then take a decision. He has described and elaborated them into three methods Called  1.Jnan Yoga 2. Karma Yoga 3. Bhakti yoga. which mean Knowledge and intellect , Devotion and love and then work and worship According to Sri Krishna this should be done with     your Vivek ( power of discrimination, Vairagya ( Power of renunciation  ans Sadhna (continuous practice and with detachment ). and in the end Pure mind will prevail over the evil mind and success will be yours..

It has been surmounted By Lord Krishna that this Universe is like tree  whose roots are facing upwards  and trunk, branches and leaves are going down and spreading everywhere. On this tree God and Living beings are sitting. GOD is seer and Jivaatma (soul) is reaping the fruits of past lives i.e Sanchit Karm ( accumulated fruits), Prarabdh Karm ( self  Chosen fruits to eat in this life ) and Krimarh karm ( Fruits generated in this life, for which Jivaatma (soul) is independent ) The Jivaatma (soul) is  experiences  pleasure or suffering according to these fruits of past actions in this life i.e he gradually surrounded by three qualities of Maya (illusion.).and bounded by these three i.e Sativa (purer truthful) ,Rajas (Kingly) and Tamas( evil) qualities of illusion. and due to this he tries to search worldly pleasures in this life which is full of sex,anger,ego and anger which are said to be gate way to hell but gets only pain and suffering..

The Geeta preaches advice to get relief from this by relinquishing ego of doing actions yourself and by rejecting fruits of actions whether good or bad  and thus doing actions without attachment and reaping award of fruits of his action doing work in the name of GOD and serving humanity by doing work according to norms, he can rid himself of all fruits of actions by sacrificing them to All mighty GOD ,he gets salvation from this and gets extreme satisfaction in himself leading to Nirvana (salvation). He should therefore do porntah samarparh   to GOD i.e.He should totally give himself to care of GOD and then he will enjoy everlasting pleasure and anand ecstasy in this very life.  He would also help others to follow suite. By this process he gets rid of illusion  by crossing barriers of the three qualities of Maya (illusion) and become Jeevan Mukta     (Realized person) in this life and either preach and enlighten other persons or by  going in Nirvikala samadhi and not coming out of it realize GOD and merge with him.

The war between pure mind and the evil mind which is going in our intellect  is described as Mahabharata and the above teachings are the teachings of Gita as I have understood and I am sharing this with you for benefit of humanity  .

" OM Shanti-Shanti- Shanti"  .

(Avadesh Kumar Mathur is a Writer, Thinker and Philosopher. He was Chief Engineer in the Public Work Deartment of Uttar Pradesh, India.)

                                                                                                                                                                   

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Dhanvantri- The Divine Doctor

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                                               The composed  by Prof. A.V. Narasimha Murthy, former Head, Department of Ancient History &Archaeology, University of Mysore, Mysore and presented by A Narayanaswami, Foermer DGM, Bharat Heavy Eletric Ltd, in the' Chajjuka Chaubara' Program.

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Some years ago I was in Tokyo (Japan) to attend an International conference
on oriental studies which included archaeology and other related subjects
and Ayurveda also. I took some time off from archaeology section and went to
the Ayurveda session which was arranged in another huge hall.
I was surprised to see over one thousand delegates from different parts of
the world including Russia, USA, England etc. I saw huge photographs of
Dhanvantri, Charaka, Sushurta and Patanjali adorning the dais. That was for
the first time I saw a photograph of Dhanvantri, the mythological divine
doctor of India adorning the dais in a foreign land.
According to our tradition, he was a divine doctor and the inaugurator of
Ayurveda. He is not mentioned in the Vedas. The first reference to him is
found in Kaushika Sutra (8th century BC). His origin is traced to the famous
episode of churning the ocean of milk. It is said that Lakshmi came first
followed by Dhanvantri draped in pure white with a pot containing amrita or
the divine elixir which made gods immortal. Bhagavata purana considers him
as the twelfth incarnation of Vishnu. He is considered as a specialist in
treating the poison from snake bite. As he also good at treating other
diseases also, Gods requested him to be their physician.
Mahabharata described him as the son of the king of Kashi by name Dhanva.
He got the knowledge of medicine from sage Bharadwaja. This consisted of
eight branches such as Shalya, Sakalya, Kayachitisa etc., and Dhanvantari
later taught these to his disciples. To give him a human status, some texts
refer to him as one of the nine gems (scholars) of Gupta emperor
Vikramaditya. A doctor who could prescribe one hundred medicines was a
Vaidya; a person who knew two hundred medicines was called a Bhishak and a
physician who knew three hundred medicines was called Dhanvantri.
Another source makes him the son of a Vaishya woman, who was blessed by a
sage to have an illustrious son. This boy prayed to gods Ashwins and
received the knowledge of medicine. Dhan-vantri is credited with a large
number of books on Ayurveda of which Dhanvantri Nighantu is most famous.
The Bhagavata Purana gives a graphic description of the iconography
features of Dhanvantri. He is handsome with long and stout hands, reddish
eyes, neck resembling a conch shell, blue in complexion and young in
appearance, has an yellow cloth, decorated by garlands, stance like a lion
and holding a pot containing nectar. The shilpashastra texts like
Vishnudharmottara codified these characters.
There are many interesting stories about Dhanvantri. Once, Indra's wife
Sachidevi became sick and required urgent treatment. God suggested that
Dhanvantri be requested to attend on her. But Indra refused because
Dhanvantri was not one among the gods and his status was lower and hence

decided to invoke Shiva himself. Shiva appeared and told Indra to approach
Dhanvantri who alone is capable of curing the disease of Sachidevi. Without
any other way, Indra approached and requested Dhanvantri. He readily agreed
and cured Sachidevi of her illness. Thus the vanity of Indra was humbled by
the plan of Shiva himself. Dhanvantri's status increased among the gods, and
they began to show more respect to him.
According to another story, snake king Vasuki sent snake queen Manasa
against Dhanvantri to kill him and his disciples, because they were curing
the snake bites among the people. Thus nobody used to die of snake bite and
they were all praising Dhanvantri and his disciples. The snake king and
queen felt that this was an insult to their power and prestige. At this
point Shiva emerged and chastised Vasuki and his wife for their hatred
against Dhanvantri who was respected even by gods. Vasuki fell at the feet
of Dhanvantri and apologized to him for his action.
Though there are many temples for Vaidyanatha Shiva, the temples for
Dhanvantri are rare. In the same manner, the sculptures of Dhanvantri are
also rare. The famous Sri Ranganathaswamy temple of Srirangam has an
interesting connection with Dhanvantri and the part played by Ramanujacharya
in this. There is a shrine for Dhanvantri in the fourth prakara of the
temple. There are stone records of Hoysala kings dated 1257 and 1493 AD
which mention gifts to this temple of Dhan-vantri. Dr. Padmaja and Dr.
Chitra Madhavan of Chennai have furnished some interesting incidents
relating to this shrine.
Ramanujacharya was a great devotee of this temple and had emotional
attachment. Different types of offerings (naivedya) were being offered to
the deity in large quantities. One day when Ramanujacharya visted this
temple, he found Sri Ranganatha to be sick. Ramanujacharya was very sad
because his favourite god was suffering from some disease. Immediately he
made enquiries about the food offered to the deity the previous day. He was
informed that the deity was offered Jambu fruit (nerale or jamoon) along
with curd and rice.
Ramanujacharya immediately understood that the combination of Jambu and curd
had caused cold to the deity and hence he is sick. He ordered that a
medicinal decoction (kashaya) be prepared and shown to Dhanvantri for his
approval in his shrine and this should be carried to Sri Ranganatha and
offered to him before the closure of the temple every night. Thus the
practice of offering to the deity is more than 800 years old. Thus
Dhanvantri is believed to be capable of curing even Vi-shnu also. That is
the greatness of Dhanvantri, the divine physician and the founder of
Ayurveda. Even today people recite Sanskrit verses praising him to get cured
from disease. His birthday is celebrated the next day after Deepavali.

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2)BRANDS

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( WRITTEN AND COMPOSED BY A NARAYANASWAMY)

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( Former Dy General Manger, The Bharat Heavy Electrical Ltd. He is Writer and Thinker )

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Purchasing a tooth paste got me thinking about what it takes to build and maintain ---a brand. After all what is toothpaste other than a brand? Brands are critical to purchasing decisions. But how can small companies develop their own brands. Why is a brand important? It seems self evident, but brands are so much a part of our lives that we forget how much we depend on them. We use brands as shorthand to make our trips to the grocery store easier; we use brands to reassure us about our purchasing decisions: we even use brands to define ourselves in society...Large corporations spend hundreds of millions of dollars building their brands, and there is a reason.

Brands build customer loyalty and lead to repeat purchases. Brands make it easier for current clients or customers to refer you to others. Brands send a message as to what your customers can expect...Brands convey an emotion and add value to the product.

A strong brand adds immense value to a product. Coca-cola is regularly listed as the world’s valuable brand; consider how much extra you can charge for a few ounces of flavored water when   it carries the coca-Cola label. The thing to remember is this; a brand is a promise. With a brand, you set customer expectations. When someone buys your product or service, they count on those expectations to be fulfilled. At the more basic level, to build a brand you must develop a strong brand image. Let us analyze how this brand culture was extended by the new companies which were founded in this country.

BIRTH  OF THE FAMOUS NAMES                                                      STRANGE  & NATURAL CIRCUMSTANCES CREATED THE FAMOUS  NAMES   MERCEDES  This was actually the financier's daughter's name.  ­­­­­ ADOBE  This came from name of the river Adobe Creek that ran behind the house of founder John Warnock.    APPLE  COMPUTERS It was the favorite fruit of founder Steve Jobs. He was three months late in filing a name for the business, and he threatened to call his company Apple Computers if his other colleagues didn't suggest a better name by 5 O'clock that evening. CISCO It is not an acronym as popularly believed. It is short for  San  Francisco COMPAQ    This name was formed by using COMp, for computer, and PAQ to denote a small integral object. COREL     The name was derived from the founder's name Dr. Michael Cowpland. It stands for  COwpland  Research Laboratory.  GOOGLE     The  name started as a joke boasting about the amount of  information the search-engine would be able to search. It was originally named 'Googol', a word for the  number represented by 1 followed by 100 zeros.After  founders- Stanford graduate students Sergey Brin and  Larry Page presented their project to an angel  investor, they received a cheque made out to  'Google'...thus  the name. HOTMAIL   Founder  Jack Smith got the idea of accessing e-mail via the  web from a computer anywhere in the world.When Sabeer  Bhatia came up with the business plan for the mail  service, he tried all kinds of names ending in 'mail'  and finally settled for hotmail as it included the  letters "html" -the programming language used to  write web pages. It was initially referred to as Hot Mail with selective uppercasing. HEWLETT  PACKARD  Bill Hewlett and Dave Packard tossed a coin to decide whether the company they founded would be called Hewlett-Packard or Packard-Hewlett.  INTEL   Bob Noyce and Gordon Moore wanted to name their new company '' Moore Noyce''but that was already trademarked by a hotel chain so they had to settle for an acronym of INTegrated ELectronics.  LOTUS  (Notes)  Mitch  Kapor got the name for his company from 'The Lotus  Position' or 'Padmasana'.Kapoor used to be a teacher  of Transcendental Meditation of  Maharishi Mahesh  Yogi.  MICROSOFT   Coined by Bill Gates to represent the company that was devoted to MICROcomputer SOFTware.Originally christened Micro-Soft, the '-' was removed later on.  MOTOROLA   Founder Paul Galvin came up with this name when his company started manufacturing radios for cars. The popular radio company at the time was called   Victrola.   ORACLE  Larry  Ellison and Bob Oats were working on a consulting  project for the CIA (Central Intelligence Agency).The  code name for the project was called Oracle (the CIA  saw this as the system to give answers to all  questions or something such).The project was designed  to help use the newly written SQL code by IBM. The project eventually was terminated but Larry and Bob decided to finish what they started and bring it to the world. They kept the name Oracle and created the RDBMS engine. Later they kept the same name for the company.  SONY   It originated from the Latin word 'sonus' meaning sound, and 'sonny' a slang used by Americans to refer to a bright youngster.  SUN   Founded by four Stanford University buddies, SUN is the acronym for Stanford University Network. Andreas Bechtolsheim built a microcomputer; Vinod  Khosla recruited him and Scott McNealy to manufacture  computers based on it,and Bill Joy to develop a  UNIX-based OS for the computer.    YAHOO!    The word was invented by Jonathan Swift and used in his book 'Gulliver's Travels'.It represents a person who is repulsive in appearance and action and is barely  human.Yahoo! Founders Jerry Yang and David Filo selected the name because they considered themselves yahoos.                                                     ******************************